Protected area / relocation
164 cases in 82 countries, 1870–2025. Most cases: United States (16), Kenya (10), Brazil (9), Russia (9), India (8).
Removal of the Endangered Species Act 'harm' definition
In July 2026 two US federal agencies removed the regulatory definition of “harm” under the Endangered Species Act, which had covered significant habitat modification that kills or injures listed wildlife. Three lawsuits challenging the change were filed that month.
US Endangered Species Act rollbacks 2025–2026 (God Squad Gulf exemption, critical habitat rules)
Between 2025 and 2026 US authorities exempted Gulf of Mexico oil and gas activity from Endangered Species Act consultation, removed the regulatory definition of “harm”, and ended automatic protection for newly threatened species. Lawsuits were filed over the exemption.
Raja Ampat nickel licences revoked
In June 2025 Indonesia revoked four of five nickel mining permits in the Raja Ampat islands. The state-linked company Gag Nikel kept operating.
Tropical Forest Forever Facility
A fund launched at COP30 in November 2025 targets 125 billion dollars to pay tropical forest countries for keeping forests standing. Its payment order puts private investors first and forest countries last.
Aïr and Ténéré Natural Reserves, World Heritage in Danger: mining permits, gold panning and the funding gap
UNESCO's World Heritage Committee kept the Aïr and Ténéré Natural Reserves in Niger on the Danger List in 2025 and 2026. Its 2025 decision recorded no current mining permits on the south-eastern boundary; its 2026 decision noted steps to revoke three permits there.
Chad ends African Parks' management of Zakouma and Ennedi parks
Chad revoked African Parks' management of Greater Zakouma and Ennedi on 6 October 2025, citing failure to stop poaching. Follow the Money reported irregularity allegations and EU pressure, which African Parks disputes in part, and the protection of both parks is at stake.
Juan López killing and Guapinol mine
Juan López, a municipal councillor and river defender, was killed in Tocoa, Honduras, on 14 September 2024. He had opposed an iron-oxide mine in the core zone of Carlos Escaleras National Park; six men are accused in the killing, and the cited sources show no conviction.
Peru Ley 31973 forest clearing amnesty and Constitutional Court
Peru amended its forest law in January 2024 to cover clearing carried out before that date. In February 2025 the Constitutional Court annulled only two transitional provisions of Law 31973, and the amnesty provision remained, according to press reports.
Paid markhor hunt in Surkhandarya, Uzbekistan
The Ministry of Ecology said that hunting in Surkhandarya in 2024 was carried out under an official permit and that a fee of USD 100,000 was collected, with the money going to nature conservation. A video reported by Kun.uz showed a Russian hunter killing two markhors and a wolf; Kun.uz gave the legal rate for foreign hunters as $25,000 per markhor.
Sea Breeze resort on the Charvak reservoir, Uzbekistan
A resort of about US$ 5 billion on 577 ha of the eastern shore of the Charvak reservoir was approved by the Cabinet of Ministers on 1 August 2025 and promoted as the most environmentally friendly project in any country. In August 2026 the state environmental review had passed only its first stage, while shoreline preparation had begun.
Cali Fund (digital sequence information)
A UN fund created in 2024 asks companies that use digital genetic sequence data to contribute a share of profit or revenue, with about US$1 billion a year expected. By August 2026 it had received US$6,000 from two companies.
Request to move 64,801 families out of India's tiger reserves
Scroll reported that a National Tiger Conservation Authority letter sought the removal of 64,801 families from India's tiger reserves. The cited sources do not say whether the removals went ahead.
Semey Ormany forest fire, Kazakhstan
A fire burned part of the Semey Ormany pine reserve in Abai region, Kazakhstan, from 8 June to 13 July 2023; 14 employees of the reserve died. Courts convicted four people in 2024, and the Ministry of Ecology valued the damage at more than KZT 165 billion.
Destruction of the Kakhovka dam and drainage of the Kakhovka reservoir (June 2023)
The dam of the Kakhovka hydroelectric power plant on the Dnipro was breached on 6 June 2023 and the reservoir drained within about two weeks. Ukraine and Russia each attribute the destruction to the other; UN and World Bank-led assessments put the ecosystem-service losses at US$6.4 billion to US$14.1 billion.
Kenya evicts more than 700 people from Mau Forest where Ogiek won at court
In November 2023 Kenya Forest Service and Kenya Wildlife Service evicted more than 700 people from the Mau Forest, where the African Court had ruled in favour of the Ogiek. Courts in Nakuru and Narok issued orders halting the evictions.
After Sackett ruling, NRDC says at least 60% of individual wetlands are unprotected
A 2023 US Supreme Court ruling in Sackett v. EPA required a wetland to have a 'continuous surface connection' before it gained federal protection. NRDC modelling, reported by Inside Climate News, found that at least 60 percent of individual wetlands would be left unprotected even under the mildest reading.
Russia labels WWF Russia a foreign agent, then an undesirable organisation
Russia designated WWF Russia a foreign agent in March 2023 and an undesirable organisation on 22 June 2023, citing what it called biased assessments that restrain economic development. The organisation had a 2021 budget of 1.1 billion roubles, about two-thirds of it from abroad, and had helped create more than 150 protected areas.
Bruno Pereira and Dom Phillips killing (Brazil)
Bruno Pereira and Dom Phillips were killed on 5 June 2022 in the Javari Valley, Amazonas. As of October 2026 no verdict had been found; the trial of those accused of carrying out the killings was moved to Manaus in February 2026.
Milas–Yatağan olive groves opened to mining (Law 7554, temporary article 45)
A 2025 law added a temporary article to Turkey's Mining Law that opens mapped olive groves in Milas and Yatağan to mining if the trees are moved or an equivalent grove is established. Producers, courts and the Constitutional Court are now involved.
DR Congo oil blocks auction after forest deal
The Democratic Republic of Congo offered oil and gas blocks for tender in 2022 and again in May 2025. Greenpeace and Rainforest Foundation UK reported that the blocks overlapped protected areas and forest.
Wildfires in Ukraine's war zone and on the Kinburn Spit, 2022–2025
Satellite-based counts put the area burned in Ukraine at about 500,000 ha in 2022, 226,000 ha in 2023, 965,000 ha in 2024 and 660,000 ha in 2025, with fires concentrated along the front line. On the Kinburn Spit, under occupation, the Ministry of Environmental Protection reported over 5,000 ha of a national park affected by 131 fires by 11 May 2023.
Sviati Hory National Nature Park, Donetsk Oblast, 2022–
Ukraine's Ministry of Environmental Protection stated on 2 August 2024 that the war had destroyed about 80% of the forest plantings of Sviati Hory National Nature Park, that about 9,500 ha of forest had been burned, and that its preliminary damage estimate was UAH 16 billion.
Askania-Nova Biosphere Reserve under occupation, 2022–
Ukrainian officials estimate damage of UAH 85.2 million for the removal of rare animals from the Askania-Nova Biosphere Reserve in occupied Kherson Oblast. In February 2025 Ukrainian prosecutors sent to court an indictment charging the occupation-appointed head of the reserve.
Chornobyl Exclusion Zone: Russian occupation of 2022 and fires, 2022–2026
Russian forces held the Chornobyl Exclusion Zone from 24 February 2022 until the end of March 2022. Ukrainian agencies reported looted laboratories and lost machinery, and a peer-reviewed satellite study found about 70 km² burned in March 2022; further fires followed in 2024 and 2026.
Colossal Biosciences: de-extinction ventures, funding and the Burgum remark
Colossal Biosciences announced in April 2025 pups it presented as dire wolves; the IUCN Canid Specialist Group said they were not, and the company's chief scientist later described them as cloned grey wolves with 20 edits. The company announced a valuation of US$10.2 billion in January 2025, up from US$1.5 billion, and the US Interior Secretary cited the announcement while criticising the endangered species list.
Los Cedros mining permits annulled (Ecuador)
In 2021 Ecuador's Constitutional Court annulled mining permits in the Los Cedros forest, finding that they violated the rights of nature. Reports said that legal mining stopped while illegal mining and deforestation continued.
Great Barrier Reef 'in danger' listing delayed
In 2021 an expert panel recommended listing the Great Barrier Reef as 'in danger' under the World Heritage Convention. The World Heritage Committee postponed the decision after the Australian government lobbied its members.
Gold mining in Yapacana National Park and the 2023 military evictions
Mining in Yapacana National Park, Amazonas state, covered 2,240 hectares by October 2025 according to MAAP. A military operation in September 2023 dismantled structures and detained 51 people; MAAP recorded renewed mining on the tepui in 2025.
Accra's Agbogbloshie scrap market demolished in July 2021
The Agbogbloshie scrap market in Accra was demolished in July 2021, displacing between 4,000 and 10,000 scrap dealers. Record dioxin levels in local eggs, reported in 2019, show the contamination at stake for nature.
Snowy 2.0 paid AUD 1.65 million to dump spoil in Kosciuszko National Park
The Snowy 2.0 hydro scheme paid AUD 1.65 million to place about 7 million cubic metres of excavated spoil in Kosciuszko National Park, according to RenewEconomy. At stake for nature is the use of a national park as a disposal site for construction spoil.
British Columbia old-growth deferrals and mill closures
From 2020 British Columbia deferred logging in parts of its remaining old forest. Analyses since have found logging continued in recommended deferral areas, while the forest industry linked mill closures to the deferrals and others pointed to an exhausted timber supply and a shift of industry capital to the United States.
Québec caribou emergency order and the 17 percent protection target
In 2024 the Canadian federal government began an emergency-order process for three Québec caribou herds. The Québec Chief Forester estimated it would cut the allowable timber harvest by 4.1% province-wide; the Québec government opposed it.
Homero Gómez González death (Monarch reserve, Mexico)
The manager of a monarch butterfly sanctuary in Michoacán, Mexico, who opposed logging in the reserve, disappeared on 13 January 2020 and was found dead in a well on 29 January. No conviction has been found.
Baikal Natural Territory: expertise exemptions and clear-cutting rules
Federal Law 254-FZ of 31 July 2020 added Article 25.1 to the Law on Lake Baikal, allowing railway-capacity works with clear-cutting in the central ecological zone until 31 December 2033. Amendments signed on 16 December 2025 widened clear-cutting rules from 1 March 2026.
El Palito refinery spill into Golfo Triste and Morrocoy National Park, 2020
A slick of oil visible on satellite images from 22 July 2020 reached the coast of Falcón state and Morrocoy National Park. Estimates of the volume ranged from about 20,000 to 26,730 barrels; scientists, NGOs and the National Assembly pointed to the El Palito refinery, while the official version cited a cargo ship. No cost, fine or compensation is on record.
4,700 families moved for Cairo's Fustat Gardens; Heliopolis lost 390,000 m² of green
Egypt's Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities reported that 4,700 families moved from Ezbet Abu Qarn to make way for the Fustat Gardens park on a former dump. Ahram Online reported in 2020 that about 390,000 square meters of Heliopolis green space were removed in four months for roads.
Addis Ababa riverside and corridor demolitions led to evictions without compensation
Demolitions for the 29-billion-birr Beautifying Sheger riverside scheme began before design approval. Arab News, citing AFP, reported that corridor works had demolished in more than 58 cities, and 872 people were evicted without compensation in Bole and Lemi Kura in November 2024.
Chepang man dies in army custody after Chitwan park detention; homes reportedly burned
A 24-year-old Chepang man detained by Nepal Army soldiers in Chitwan National Park died in July 2020. Reports said that two days after his death, park guards burned and demolished the homes of landless Chepang families.
Rinca island work in Komodo National Park continued after UNESCO asked for a halt
Construction on Rinca island in Komodo National Park began under Indonesia's '10 New Bali' tourism programme and continued after UNESCO asked for it to stop. The wildlife zone was reduced to a third, and the government reported a target of 500,000 visitors a year.
Paulo Paulino Guajajara killing (Brazil)
An unarmed Indigenous forest guardian was shot dead in the Araribóia Indigenous Territory in Maranhão in November 2019. Two men have been charged; as of October 2026 no record of a federal jury trial or verdict was found.
WWF independent review (Pillay panel) and US funding suspension
In November 2020 an independent panel appointed by WWF reported that it saw no evidence that WWF staff directed alleged ranger abuses in six countries, and that WWF's human rights commitments had been implemented inconsistently. In 2019 and 2020 the US government suspended and then conditioned funds to conservation grantees including WWF and WCS.
Manila Bay rehabilitation resettlement and Pasig riverwalk
The Manila Bay rehabilitation programme has moved informal settler families away from the shoreline. A separate privately financed Pasig riverwalk plans temporary container housing for up to 10,000 families.
Dutch PFAS soil limit, 2019
In July 2019 the Dutch government set a PFAS limit of 0.1 microgram per kilogram for soil moved to agricultural and nature land. The national health institute RIVM states that this value is a measurement limit, not a risk threshold.
Tajik markhor hunts leave about USD 78,000 per hunt with protected areas
A 2019 CITES fact sheet reports that markhor, a wild goat, increased in Tajikistan and that about USD 78,000 per hunt remains with the protected area. The cited sources do not give the hunt fees or the share kept by hunting operators.
Kigali cleared Bannyahe as a 'high-risk wetland' for high-income investment
KT Press reported in 2019 that Kigali cleared the Bannyahe settlement, labelled a 'high-risk wetland', while the city master plan sought the land for high-income investment. Yale Environment 360 reported that the restored Nyandungu wetland could cut wetland access for more than 14,000 farming households if the plan proceeds.
Maldives awards Gulhifalhu reclamation contract to Boskalis without tender
The Gulhifalhu reclamation, presented as protection against rising seas, created 150 hectares from about 18 million cubic metres of sand. Save Maldives says it will destroy a 13 km² reef and a dive site protected since 1995.
Posidonia oceanica meadows (Balearics, Mediterranean)
Posidonia oceanica, a seagrass found only in the Mediterranean, has been reported to have declined by 34% in 50 years, a figure other researchers dispute. The Balearic Islands banned anchoring over meadows in 2018; boats were still being detected over them in 2025, and carbon-credit and restoration schemes have produced claims that the cited sources do not yet confirm.
Kenya logging ban lifted and eucalyptus felling
Kenya lifted its 2018 logging ban in July 2023 and a court set the decision aside in October 2023. A 2024 report cited six million eucalyptus trees in six months, while the government set a target of 15 billion trees by 2032.
Great Barrier Reef Foundation A$443m grant (Australia)
In 2018 the Australian government awarded a A$443 million grant to the Great Barrier Reef Foundation without a tender. The national audit office reviewed the award in January 2019.
Halmahera nickel complex (IWIP, Weda Bay) and the Hongana Manyawa
Nickel mines and smelters on the Indonesian island of Halmahera overlap the territory of the Hongana Manyawa, some of whom live without contact with the outside world. Climate Rights International and other groups report forest clearance, river pollution and health effects; companies dispute parts of the account.
Tukolon reserve sanitary logging conviction in Irkutsk Oblast
In May 2022 the Kirovsky District Court of Irkutsk convicted four former officials, including the former regional forestry minister, over a 2018 clear-felling of about 120 ha of relict forest in the Tukolon regional reserve. The cut had been justified as sanitary logging of pest- and fire-damaged forest.
Persian Wildlife Heritage Foundation conservationists: arrests, a death in custody and prison sentences, 2018–2024
Revolutionary Guards arrested staff of the Persian Wildlife Heritage Foundation in January 2018 after they used camera traps to monitor Asiatic cheetahs. The founder died in custody, and on 20 November 2019 a Tehran Revolutionary Court branch convicted eight others of collaborating with the United States and sentenced them to 4–10 years; all those sentenced had been freed by April 2024.
Greater Tortue Ahmeyim LNG project, the deep-water coral reef and BP's reef mitigation
BP operates the Greater Tortue Ahmeyim LNG project on the Mauritania–Senegal maritime border, where the Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment found in 2018 that the environmental assessment was incomplete and that the seabed holds live reef-building Lophelia corals. A gas leak at one of four wells was found in February 2025, and a 3.2 billion FCFA artificial reef was announced as mitigation by Senegal's fisheries ministry.
Carpathian beech, IKEA's supply chain and FSC certification: Earthsight's 2020 findings and the responses
In June 2020 the NGO Earthsight reported that beech logged in Zakarpattia during a legal silence period reached FSC-certified IKEA products. IKEA, the Forest Stewardship Council and the Ukrainian processor VGSM gave differing accounts, and Ukrainian prosecutors later notified officials of suspicion in other Carpathian logging cases.
Xcacel-Xcacelito turtle sanctuary, Tulum, Mexico: Semarnat refuses permits for the La Calma hotel (2018)
On 31 August 2018 Semarnat refused permits for La Calma, a 520-room hotel on 26 ha fronting Xcacel-Xcacelito bay. Semarnat said the project would place both land and marine ecosystems at risk.
Tompkins Conservation donates land in Chile to state for two new national parks
Tompkins Conservation transferred 407,625 hectares of land it had bought in Chile to the state in 2019, for two new national parks. The cited sources do not give the purchase prices for that land.
Bottom trawling in European marine protected areas
A 2018 study of 727 marine protected areas designated by EU member states found commercial bottom trawling in at least 59% of them. Reports from 2024 and 2025 say trawling continued, while the European Commission's 2030 phase-out target for protected areas remained non-binding.
World Bank REGROW project, Ruaha National Park
A US$150 million World Bank project in southern Tanzania was suspended in April 2024 after allegations of ranger violence and village removals around Ruaha National Park. The Bank's Inspection Panel found non-compliance with Bank policies, and the government cancelled the project in November 2024.
Beijing demolished 59.85 million m² of unauthorised buildings and planned greening
Beijing reported that 59.85 million m² of unauthorised structures were demolished in 2017, with 80% of the vacated land to be set aside as green space, and critics said a 2018 village campaign in Daxing covertly cleared low-end population. The greening is the stated gain; the cited sources do not count the residents moved.
Bears Ears national monument shrinkage (USA)
Utah's Bears Ears National Monument was declared in 2016, reduced by about 85% in 2017, restored in 2021 and reduced by about 91% on 13 July 2026. Seven mining claims were filed in the removed area the next day.
Half-Earth and 30x30 advocacy funding (Wyss Campaign for Nature)
A Swiss philanthropist pledged US$1 billion, later US$1.5 billion, to a campaign for protecting 30% of land and sea by 2030. The target was adopted in 2022; reports on the coverage reached so far and on what the protected areas protect are partial.
Great Bear Rainforest agreement (Canada)
A February 2016 agreement set 85% of the Great Bear Rainforest on the British Columbia coast aside as protected and left a 550,000-hectare zone open to logging. Reporting since has disputed how much old forest remains in the logging zone.
Gold mining inside Canaima National Park
Mining has expanded inside Canaima National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Bolívar state where mining is prohibited. NGO estimates of the area affected rose from 1,033 hectares (2020) to 1,852 hectares (2026).
Siembra Minera: the merged Brisas–Cristinas area in the Orinoco Mining Arc, the 2022 revocation and Gold Reserve's new arbitration
The Imataca land on which permits were denied or revoked in 2008 in the name of the forest was placed in a state-majority mixed company in 2016, which obtained an environmental permit for early works. Its mining rights were revoked in 2022, and Gold Reserve claims over US$7 billion in an ICSID arbitration while negotiating a return under Venezuela's 2026 mining law.
Kenyan water-tower forest evictions followed the 2018 shooting of a Sengwer herder
A Kenyan water fund is reported to overlap Sengwer land in Embobut forest, where, according to the Forest Peoples Programme, forest guards shot a herder in 2018, and evictions continued into 2024. Water-tower forests feed rivers, so evictions and conservation funding affect both communities and catchments.
Bangkok canal programme tied embankment works to moving all families
A Bangkok canal programme on the Lat Phrao and Prem Prachakorn canals covered 11,004 households with 4.1 billion baht in 2016 to 2018, and embankment construction was tied to all families moving, the Bangkok Post reported. The cited sources do not describe its effect on canal water or ecology.
Southern Cardamom REDD+ project and the arrest of Pork Nget (Cambodia)
A REDD+ carbon project run by Wildlife Alliance with Cambodia's Ministry of Environment received more than 27 million Verra credits. Human Rights Watch reported that Indigenous Chong families were not consulted for 31 months and that some were evicted, detained or beaten; Wildlife Alliance denied the abuses, Verra reinstated the project in September 2024, and a Chong farmer was arrested in his field in June 2024.
Kiribati PIPA opened to fishing
The Phoenix Islands Protected Area, 408,250 square kilometres of ocean, was closed to commercial fishing in 2015. In November 2021 the Government of Kiribati announced it would end the closure, and the area opened formally in 2023.
Chennai water-body restoration evictions and Perumbakkam resettlement
Since 2015, 19,817 families have been evicted from 83 settlements in Chennai, 95 per cent of them for water-body restoration. Of these, 12,045 families were resettled at Perumbakkam, which flooded six times in nine years.
Cambodia REDD+ indigenous consultation failure
Human Rights Watch reported that Chong Indigenous communities were not consulted for 31 months about the Southern Cardamom REDD+ project in Cambodia, and documented evictions and detentions. Wildlife Alliance denied the abuses.
Palau National Marine Sanctuary
Palau closed 80% of its exclusive economic zone to fishing under a 2015 law that took effect in 2020. Proposals to reopen part of it have been tabled since 2022.
Hyrcanian forests logging moratorium: announced budgets, partial allocation and the 2025 Elit fire
Iran halted commercial logging in its northern Hyrcanian forests from late 2016 and wrote the ban into the Sixth Development Plan in January 2017. Officials announced budgets and a compensation credit; the amounts actually paid to forestry-plan operators are not on record, and a wildfire in November 2025 drew a CHF 500,000 IFRC allocation.
Jakarta counted 113 forced evictions in 2015, most without resettlement housing
LBH Jakarta, a legal aid group, counted 113 forced evictions in Jakarta in 2015 that affected 8,145 household heads. Resettlement housing was not provided at 72 of the sites; the cited evictions were tied to river normalisation and a sea-wall plan, and the cited sources describe no effect on the rivers or sea.
Hunter who shot lion Cecil in Zimbabwe was never charged
A lion known as Cecil was lured with bait to the edge of Hwange National Park and shot in July 2015 by a US hunter who had paid about $54,000. The hunter was never charged, and the trophy-hunting revenue figures cited come from a 2013 report commissioned by animal-rights groups.
Sengwer evictions from Embobut forest and the EU Water Towers programme (Kenya)
A Sengwer herder was shot dead in January 2018 in Embobut forest, Kenya, by Kenya Forest Service guards during evictions linked to an EU-funded water-tower programme. The EU suspended the programme the next day and closed it in 2020; evictions continued in 2024.
Burkina Faso Forest Investment Program project: 3.78 million tCO2eq in emission reductions estimated with an ex-ante tool
A World Bank-administered Forest Investment Program project spent USD 23.7 million in grants across 32 communes in Burkina Faso between 2014 and 2021. The 3.78 million tCO2eq in emission reductions it reported was estimated with an ex-ante tool because the monitoring, reporting and verification system was not completed.
Okinawa pays for US base PFAS treatment as Henoko cost rises to 930 billion yen
Okinawa's prefectural government has paid for PFAS water treatment linked to US base contamination, after on-base inspection requests were rejected four times since 2016. The Henoko base relocation cost estimate rose from 350 billion yen in 2014 to 930 billion yen in 2019.
Ski centre planned inside a national park in Almaty, Kazakhstan
About 1,200 hectares of Ile-Alatau National Park land near Almaty were transferred in 2014 for the Kok-Zhailau ski resort. President Tokayev banned the project in October 2019, and in June 2020 the Mazhilis approved in first reading a law to return unused land of this kind to protected status.
Fijian village Vunidogoloa relocates inland under climate relocation plan
Vunidogoloa moved two kilometres inland in January 2014 and gave up sea fishing, according to a 2020 blog post. In September 2026 its headman told the Fiji Times that some new homes lacked kitchens.
US syndicated conservation easement tax shelters (EcoVest, Fisher and Sinnott)
Investors in US partnerships bought land and donated conservation easements, claiming federal tax deductions that an IRS preliminary analysis put at an average of $9 per $1 invested. The IRS, a Senate investigation, courts and Congress acted over several years, and two promoters were convicted in 2023.
Kaziranga shoot-on-sight killings (India)
Dozens of people were reported killed in encounters with forest guards at Kaziranga National Park in Assam between 2013 and 2016. The park director described the deaths as crossfire; critics said the guards worked under a shoot-on-sight policy, which the park management denies.
Burabay National Park land plots, Kazakhstan
Protected land of Burabay National Park in Akmola region was transferred into settlements and private hands; the state is now taking it back through a prosecutor's protest and lawsuits, 29 of which had been filed by December 2024. One owner says he invested KZT 400 million, and owners say their plots predate the documents the prosecutor relies on.
Northern Kenya Grasslands Carbon Project and the Isiolo court ruling
A Verra-registered soil-carbon project in northern Kenya covers 1.9 million hectares. In January 2025 a Kenyan court found that two of its conservancies had been set up without adequate public participation.
Resolute Forest Products v Greenpeace
A Canadian forest products company sued Greenpeace in a US federal court under the racketeering law (RICO) after a dispute over logging in the boreal forest. The court dismissed the racketeering claims in 2019 and the remaining claims in 2023, and the parties announced the end of the litigation in April 2024.
Termit and Tin Toumma National Nature Reserve: 2019 boundary change around CNPC oil blocks
In June 2019 Niger's government redrew the boundaries of the Termit and Tin Toumma National Nature Reserve, excluding an area in the east that overlapped CNPC oil blocks and adding land in the west. The addax habitat in the Tin Toumma desert ended up outside the reserve.
José Cláudio and Maria murder
José Cláudio Ribeiro da Silva and Maria do Espírito Santo were killed on 24 May 2011 in Nova Ipixuna, Pará, Brazil. They had opposed logging and charcoal production in a sustainable-use settlement.
Orinoco Mining Arc: decree, state gold business and measured harm
A February 2016 presidential decree opened a 111,843.70 km² zone south of the Orinoco to state-led mining of gold, diamonds, coltan, iron and bauxite. UN bodies reported an expansion of mining outside authorisation, mercury exposure among downstream Indigenous communities and no published environmental budget.
African Parks Odzala-Kokoua abuses (Republic of Congo)
African Parks, which has managed Odzala-Kokoua National Park since 2010, said in May 2025 that human rights abuses occurred in some incidents after an investigation of 21 incidents. It did not publish the report.
Pacific tuna Vessel Day Scheme
Pacific island states that are parties to the Nauru Agreement sell fishing days to tuna fleets, and their access revenue rose from US$64 million in 2010 to US$357 million in 2015. Catch reached a record in 2024, the fishery's certificate was widened in 2024, and Kiribati's Phoenix Islands protected area was reopened to fishing.
Kyparissia Bay (Thines Kyparissias), Greece: construction, roads and beach use at a loggerhead nesting site, CJEU C-504/14 (2016)
On 10 November 2016 the Court of Justice of the European Union found that Greece had breached Articles 6(2) and 12(1)(b) and (d) of the Habitats Directive at Kyparissia Bay, a Natura 2000 loggerhead nesting beach in Messinia. The Bern Convention file opened in 2010 remained open in October 2026.
World Bank-backed Colombo flood work turned Beddagana wetland into a park
The World Bank supported a 213 million dollar flood and wetland programme in Colombo, and the Beddagana wetland became a park. The Centre for Policy Alternatives says the bank stayed silent on evictions by the Urban Development Authority.
Cheonggyecheon stream restoration merchants (Seoul)
Seoul removed a highway and restored the Cheonggyecheon stream. Merchants displaced by the project were offered space in the Garden Five shopping centre outside the centre, where about 350 remained by 2014.
Mkuju River uranium mine and the Selous boundary change
In 2012 the World Heritage Committee approved a change to the boundary of Tanzania's Selous Game Reserve so that a uranium mine could be developed, calling the decision exceptional. A pilot processing plant opened in July 2025.
Boa Vista, Cabo Verde: hotel on a nesting beach and the rise in loggerhead nesting
The RIU Touareg hotel opened on Lacacao beach, Boa Vista, in May 2011, after the Turtle Foundation began protecting the beach in 2009. A 2026 paper reports an 80-fold rise in nesting on three Boa Vista beaches from 1998 to 2024.
Arbitration tribunal finds UK breached UN sea law over Chagos reserve
A 2015 arbitration tribunal found a breach of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea in the dispute over the Chagos marine protected area, which a US cable called the most effective way to block former residents' return. The cited sources do not describe the reserve's effect on marine life.
Messok Dja ecoguard abuses (Republic of Congo)
A leaked draft UN Development Programme investigation reported credible evidence of beatings of Baka men, women and children by ecoguards at the Messok Dja project. A review commissioned by WWF found the consent process did not comply with international human rights norms. The cited sources show no prosecutions.
WWF-supported ecoguards in Cameroon and CAR (Lobéké, Dzanga-Sangha)
Ecoguards trained and paid with WWF support were accused of beatings and torture around Lobéké in Cameroon, and WWF staff were accused of involvement in a rifle purchase in Dzanga-Sangha in the Central African Republic. An independent panel reported in November 2020 that it found no evidence that WWF staff directed abuses, and that WWF had not taken adequate steps once it knew of the allegations.
Bhutan constitutional forest rule and Bhutan for Life
Bhutan's 2008 Constitution requires at least 60% of the country to stay under forest, and in 2017 the Green Climate Fund and WWF launched a US$43 million conservation partnership. The cited sources record who bore local costs and note that the 'carbon negative' figures vary between sources.
Las Cristinas gold project: 2008 permit denial in the Imataca reserve, Crystallex ICSID award and court-ordered sale of CITGO's parent
Venezuela denied an environmental permit for the Las Cristinas gold mine in 2008, citing damage to the Imataca forest and global warming. An investment tribunal found the denial arbitrary and awarded Crystallex US$1,202 million plus interest, and a US court later approved a US$5.892 billion sale of CITGO's parent company to pay judgments.
India's Supreme Court ordered evictions of about 1.18 million families, then stayed them
India's Supreme Court ordered the eviction of forest-dwelling families in a case brought by conservation groups, then stayed its own order in February 2019. The case appears unresolved, and the cited sources do not say what happened to the families.
World Bank and development bank accountability mechanisms: Embobut (Sengwer), Tata Mundra, Arun III, Jale, Cambodia
Development banks run complaint bodies for people harmed by projects they finance. This record follows five matters, with the most complete account for the 2014 World Bank Inspection Panel finding on the Embobut forest in Kenya and the 2018 killing of a Sengwer herder in an EU-funded forest programme.
Yasuní ITT oil wells closure (Ecuador)
In 2023 Ecuadorian voters chose to leave the oil of the Yasuní ITT block underground. By August 2025 the sources record 10 of 246 wells closed, and the block was still producing in 2026.
Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics: environmental pledges and the Mzymta valley
The 2014 Winter Games were built partly inside Sochi National Park and along the Mzymta river, with a UNEP advisory role and a 2011 declaration of commitments. Peer-reviewed studies recorded the loss of Black Sea trout spawning grounds along 57 km of the river, and an environmental defender from the group that documented the damage was imprisoned and later released.
Khimki forest and the M11 Moscow–St Petersburg toll motorway (km 15–58)
A 43 km toll-motorway section built under a state concession with Vinci crossed the Khimki forest park near Moscow after the Supreme Court upheld the transfer of about 150 hectares of forest land in 2010. Compensation planting was promised in several amounts; the journalist Mikhail Beketov was attacked in 2008 and no suspects have been identified.
Hoor al-Azim wetland, oil-field development and dikes in Khuzestan
Parts of the Iranian side of the transboundary Hawizeh marshes in Khuzestan were enclosed by dikes and roads around the Azadegan and Yadavaran oil fields. Reuters quoted Iran's oil minister in 2025 as saying "We are the ones who dried up the wetland"; no compensation or restoration budget specific to the wetland is on record.
US Endangered Species Act listing of nine loggerhead population segments (2011) and marine critical habitat (2014)
A final rule of 22 September 2011 identified nine loggerhead distinct population segments, four threatened and five endangered. On 10 July 2014 the National Marine Fisheries Service designated 38 marine areas as critical habitat, with no exclusions.
Cambodia fills Phnom Penh's Boeung Kak lake with sand under 99-year lease
Cambodia leased 90 hectares of Phnom Penh's Boeung Kak lake for 99 years and filled it with river sand and mud, displacing residents. The World Bank's Inspection Panel later found that a Bank land-titling programme had excluded residents from registration.
WWF Nepal Chitwan ranger death (Shikharam Chaudhary)
A farmer died in 2006 after being held in the park jail at Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Three park officials were charged with murder; the government withdrew the case in 2007.
Dorothy Stang killing
Dorothy Stang was killed on 12 February 2005 in Anapu, Pará, Brazil. Two ranchers were convicted of ordering the killing; one of them was released in 2018 and ordered back to prison in 2019.
ESPO oil pipeline rerouted away from the Baikal shore (2006)
On 26 April 2006 President Vladimir Putin ordered Transneft to move the East Siberia–Pacific Ocean (ESPO) oil pipeline north of the Lake Baikal catchment, after a route about 800 m from the northern shore had received a positive state ecological expertise conclusion. Putin later put the extra cost at an additional $1 billion.
Zagros oak forests: the UNDP/GEF Central Zagros project, its evaluation and the fires of 2024–2026
A UNDP/GEF biodiversity project in Iran's Central Zagros ran from 2005 to 2016 with US$3.69 million of GEF funds; its terminal evaluation found that the goal and objective were not achieved. Fires in the Zagros oak forests continued, with Iran International reporting a fall in the forest organisation's dollar budget between 2021 and 2026.
Rio Tinto's QMM ilmenite mine: net positive impact pledge and biodiversity offset (Madagascar)
Rio Tinto made a 'net positive impact' pledge on biodiversity in 2004 that covered its QMM ilmenite mine in Madagascar, and dropped it in 2016. Accounts record all members of its biodiversity committee resigning, and the World Rainforest Movement reported forest destruction and restrictions on local communities at the offset project.
US Senate probes Nature Conservancy land sales to its own trustees
Senator Chuck Grassley sought answers from The Nature Conservancy in 2003 about insider land deals, in which conservation land was sold to its own trustees at discounts. The cited sources give no figures for the land involved.
Salonga National Park ranger abuses (DR Congo)
Rangers in Salonga National Park, which WWF co-manages with the Congolese parks authority ICCN, were reported to have killed, raped and tortured people between 2002 and 2016. An independent panel appointed by WWF found no evidence that WWF staff directed abuses, and found that WWF had not fulfilled its human rights commitments in relation to Salonga.
Banc d'Arguin National Park, the BACoMaB trust fund and fishing pressure
The BACoMaB conservation trust fund, capitalised by KfW, AFD/FFEM, MAVA and the EU through fisheries-agreement sectoral support, finances part of the running costs of Banc d'Arguin National Park in Mauritania. The park's 2024 dashboard records rising landings of threatened sharks and rays by its resident fishers, and a 2023 study found bony fish stocks inside the park overfished.
Mau Forest loss and forest excisions (Kenya)
Satellite data showed the Mau Forest lost 19% of its tree cover in 2001–2022. Kenya's Forest Service said satellite images did not reflect the situation on the ground, and the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights ruled on the eviction of the Ogiek people from the forest.
Hardwood logging in the Russian Far East and exports to China
WWF Russia and the Environmental Investigation Agency reported that Mongolian oak logged in Primorsky and Khabarovsk Krai for export to China exceeded authorised volumes by 2–4 times in 2004–2011. Russian officials in 2020 and 2023 gave their own estimates of unrecorded and illegally harvested timber.
Venezuela tree cover loss, 2001–2024, and international forest finance
Global Forest Watch recorded annual tree cover loss in Venezuela of between 61,436 and 207,336 hectares in 2001–2020, with a peak in 2016. Over the same period the Global Environment Facility approved grants for national parks and forest projects, and the Green Climate Fund approved USD 3.6 million of readiness support.
Nepal community forestry
A 2019 study of more than 18,000 community forests in Nepal found 37% less deforestation and 4.3% less poverty than in matched comparison areas. A January 2026 study of rural inequality reported that the poverty gain went mainly to dominant caste groups and that the Dalit gain was not statistically significant.
Asiatic cheetah conservation project in Iran: 25 years of funding and a count of 26 animals
The Global Environment Facility, UNDP and Iran's Department of Environment funded the Conservation of the Asiatic Cheetah Project from 2001, and the Department took it over alone in December 2017. In August 2025 and August 2026 the Department counted 26 Asiatic cheetahs, 20 in the wild and 6 in captivity.
Zakynthos landfill inside the National Marine Park, Greece: CJEU C-600/12 (2014) and penalty judgment C-368/24 (2025)
The Commission said a landfill inside the National Marine Park of Zakynthos had caused problems since 1999. The Court of Justice found Greece in breach on 17 July 2014 and, on 9 October 2025, ordered Greece to pay a lump sum of EUR 5,500,000 and a periodic penalty of EUR 12,500 per day until compliance.
Anamur (Karaagac) Beach, Mersin, Türkiye: Bern Convention file 2019/5 and Recommendation No. 226 (2024)
A 2019 complaint to the Bern Convention concerns construction of a public beach and picnic area at the Anamur (Karaagac) nesting beach in Mersin. The Standing Committee opened the case in 2022 and adopted Recommendation No. 226 in 2024; the file is open.
Belek, Antalya: 1998 Bern marina recommendation, 2014 hotel-road annulment and 2021 hatchling deaths
Between 1998 and 2021 the Belek, Kadriye and Bogazkent coast in Antalya, Türkiye, appeared in a Bern Convention recommendation on a marina plan, an administrative court ruling that cancelled a hotel road permit, and fines on two hotels after hatchlings died under wooden walkways. EKAD said the 30 km beach had more than 3,000 nests in 2021.
Costa Rica payments for ecosystem services and forest recovery
Since 1997 Costa Rica has paid landowners not to cut forest or to plant trees, and forest cover rose from about 21% in the late 1980s to nearly 60%. An independent study of the early years found no significant effect of the payments on deforestation.
Botswana court finds San relocation from Central Kalahari unlawful
A Botswana court found the relocation of San people from the Central Kalahari unlawful in December 2006. The government's figure for those removed is about 2,000 people. At stake is who may live on and use Central Kalahari land.
Fethiye and Patara nesting beaches, Türkiye: Bern Convention files and recommendations, 1996-2025
The Bern Convention Standing Committee has dealt with the loggerhead nesting beaches of Patara and Fethiye since 1996 through case files and Recommendations No. 54 (1996), 66 (1998), 182 and 183 (2015). In 2025 the Patara file moved to stand-by and the Fethiye file stayed open.
Nature Conservancy gas drilling on Texas City Prairie Preserve
The Nature Conservancy drilled for gas on a Texas prairie that Mobil Oil had donated in 1995 and that was the last wild breeding area of the endangered Attwater's prairie chicken. The Washington Post reported in 2003 that the well earned about $8 million by January 2002 while the number of nesting birds fell.
Cabo Pulmo National Park (Mexico) community no-take success
A village of about 100 people stopped fishing on its own reef in 1995. A peer-reviewed measurement found fish biomass rose from 0.75 to 4.24 tonnes per hectare between 1999 and 2009, while control areas did not change.
Lake Urmia decline and the Urmia Lake Restoration Program
Lake Urmia in north-west Iran lost about 90% of its area in the two decades after 1995, according to NASA. A state restoration programme set up in 2013 is reported with differing spending totals, and a Majlis investigation report on it was sent to the judiciary in May 2024.
Limni Bay / Polis-Gialia golf and villa resort, Cyprus: infringement procedure closed (2019), land sold (2025)
A golf, hotel and beachfront-property resort was planned at Limni Bay on the Akamas peninsula, in the Natura 2000 site Polis-Gialia, which has loggerhead nesting beaches. The European Commission closed its infringement procedure on 24 January 2019; the project was cancelled in 2021 and the land was split and sold in February 2025.
Libya: Qubeiba Beach nesting site demolished for a power plant near Sirte; turtle programme interrupted
In 2009 construction of a power plant near Sirte demolished Qubeiba Beach, which The National described in 2023 as one of Libya's most active nesting sites. A UN-funded turtle programme was interrupted by conflict, and volunteers continue without funding.
Clayoquot Sound protection (Canada)
In 1993 the British Columbia government issued a land use decision for Clayoquot Sound on Vancouver Island.
Ho Chi Minh City canal restoration demolished about 7,000 households
Ho Chi Minh City's Nhieu Loc–Thi Nghe canal restoration demolished about 7,000 households, and tenants received no compensation. The cited sources report no ecological results from the canal.
Ngorongoro and Loliondo relocations
The Tanzanian government has set aside land in Loliondo to protect the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem and has been relocating residents of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area to Msomera since June 2022, with a target above 82,000 people. It calls the relocation voluntary; Human Rights Watch reported that services were cut to push people out. A UAE-based company has held exclusive hunting rights over 400,000 hectares since 1992.
Newfoundland pays residents to leave Little Bay Islands, a dwindling fishing village
Newfoundland and Labrador's relocation programme offered C$250,000 to C$270,000 per household to leave outport villages after the 1992 cod moratorium. Nature's stake: the cod stocks behind the moratorium and the coastal land left empty.
Kivalina village in Alaska still awaits relocation after 2008 suit against ExxonMobil
Kivalina, an Inupiat village on a thin barrier island in Alaska, has lost much of its land to erosion while relocation stalled. Its 2008 damages suit against ExxonMobil and other large emitters was dismissed. Nature's stake: the island's shrinking coastline.
UNESCO World Heritage listings and Indigenous rights
Four African sites (Odzala-Kokoua, Lake Bogoria, Simien, Bwindi) were listed, or removed from the danger list, while questions about Indigenous peoples' consent, eviction or compensation were on record. The cases show how the listing process treated those questions.
Dutch nitrogen crisis and farm buyouts
The Netherlands cut its agricultural nitrogen surplus by 57% between 1990 and 2023, but its national institute for public health and the environment (RIVM) said in 2024 that the legal 2035 target for nitrogen-sensitive nature could not be met under current policy. By September 2026 a voluntary livestock buyout scheme had 279 finalised files.
FACE Foundation Mount Elgon carbon forest (Uganda)
A 1994 agreement covering 25,000 hectares of Mount Elgon in Uganda is listed as a carbon forest project. Reporting links the project area to the eviction of the Benet people.
Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve, Acre
The Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve was created in Acre, Brazil, in March 1990, fifteen months after the rubber-tapper leader was shot dead. Records for 2019–2024 show clearing, cattle and pasture inside it.
Chico Mendes murder (Brazil)
Chico Mendes, a rubber tappers' leader who opposed forest clearing for cattle ranching, was shot at his home in Xapuri, Acre, on 22 December 1988. A rancher and his son were sentenced to 19 years each, and the Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve was created in March 1990.
Dalyan / Iztuzu Beach, Türkiye: Kaunos Beach Hotel project stopped (1987)
Construction of an 1,800-bed hotel complex, the Kaunos Beach Hotel, began at Dalyan in April 1987 and drew protests from IUCN, Greenpeace, WWF and others. The project stopped in September 1987.
Laganas Bay, Zakynthos, Greece: National Marine Park, Bern file 1986/8 and CJEU C-103/00 (2002)
MEDASSET complained to the Bern Convention in 1986 about development at the loggerhead nesting beaches of Laganas Bay on Zakynthos. On 30 January 2002 the Court of Justice found that Greece had failed to fulfil its obligations to establish strict protection for Caretta caretta on the island; the Bern file was reopened in 2020 and remained open in October 2026.
World Bank-backed dams displaced people, and reviews found incomes often not restored
Dams worldwide displaced an estimated 40 to 80 million people, according to the World Commission on Dams, and most did not regain their former livelihoods. The World Bank's own reviews found major gaps in restoring incomes, and downstream fishing income in Laos fell after the Nam Theun 2 dam.
Farmer-managed regeneration in Niger spread to about 5 million hectares by 2004
From 1983 in Maradi, farmers pruned and protected trees that regrew from stumps in their fields. The method needed little planting, and farmers supplied the labour.
Canaima National Park: fire suppression for the Guri catchment, mining pressure and the UNESCO decisions
The state power utility has run a fire suppression programme in Canaima National Park to protect the forests that feed the Guri dam. A Landsat study measured 106,000 hectares burned in 2015–2016, the State Party reported 204 hectares for a later period, and the World Heritage Committee has recorded recurring fires and mining inside the park.
Kaeng Krachan: Karen evictions and the disappearance of Billy
Park officials burned Karen homes at Bang Kloi inside Thailand's Kaeng Krachan National Park in 2011. Karen rights defender Porlajee "Billy" Rakchongcharoen disappeared in 2014 after detention by park officials, and the park was listed as a World Heritage site in 2021.
Herders with residence papers forced out of Mkomazi reserve
In the 1980s and 1990s, herders with written residence rights were forced out of the Mkomazi reserve in Tanzania, and the dispute went to court, according to a 1997 IIED report. The cited sources do not give how many people were removed or the outcome of the case, so the scale of the loss is unknown.
Green Belt Movement and Karura Forest, Kenya
A tree-planting movement founded in Kenya in 1977 campaigned against land grabs in public forests. The cited sources show 477 hectares of Karura Forest allocated to 64 developers in 1994–1999 and continuing tree-cover loss in the Mau Forest.
Lake Biwa phosphate-detergent ban
After a freshwater red tide in 1977, Shiga Prefecture banned the sale and use of phosphate-containing detergent around Lake Biwa in an ordinance of 1979–1980. The prefecture's page says the ordinance remains in force.
Kahuzi-Biega National Park: Batwa evictions and killings
Batwa were evicted without compensation when Kahuzi-Biega National Park in DR Congo was expanded in 1975. In April 2022 Minority Rights Group reported that park guards and soldiers killed at least 20 Batwa in 2019–2021.
Hamoun wetlands, Helmand water and the EU/UNDP restoration project
The Hamoun lakes on the Iran–Afghanistan border, fed by the Helmand river, were nearly gone by 2001, according to NASA. A 1973 treaty sets Iran's share of Helmand water, and sources give different volumes for it; an EU-funded, UNDP-implemented project of €10 million has run from 2020.
Endorois and Lake Bogoria enzyme extraction (Kenya)
Lake Bogoria in Kenya became a game reserve in the 1970s and the Endorois were evicted. In 2010 the African Commission found a rights violation and asked that revenue be shared; in 2024 the Endorois said they learned from the press that enzymes were being extracted from the lake.
Baikalsk Pulp and Paper Mill: closure and waste clean-up
The Baikalsk Pulp and Paper Mill discharged treated wastewater into Lake Baikal from 1966 and stopped production in 2013 after bankruptcy proceedings. Millions of tonnes of pulp-production waste remained in storage ponds on the shore, and federal clean-up funding has been set by successive programmes since 2013.
Semipalatinsk test site: measured contamination, land reallocation and the Nuclear Safety Zone
Surveys of the former Soviet test site found 429 km² of the 1,200 km² observed at Degelen and Aktan-Berli radioactively contaminated. Since 2013 Kazakhstan has moved former test-site land back into use and, from 2023, has been setting up a Nuclear Safety Zone funded by KZT 3.596bn through 2027.
Bikini reef partly recovered after US nuclear tests; islanders still displaced
US nuclear tests at Bikini and Enewetak from 1946 to 1958 displaced islanders, and a 2008 study found that about 70% of former coral species had returned to the reef. The resettlement fund fell from 59 million dollars to about 100,000 by 2023, and descendants still live on Kili, where freshwater is expected to be salted by waves.
Pribilof fur seal harvest and Alaska Commercial Company
The Alaska Commercial Company held the Pribilof Islands fur seal harvest in the late nineteenth century. A federal agency history records that the Aleut residents were later compensated by the US government, not by the company.
Human Rights Watch reports about 930,000 relocated in Tibet for ecological protection
Human Rights Watch reported in May 2024 that about 930,000 people were moved in Tibet under an 'ecological protection' rationale, and that the moves were not voluntary. The stake is the livelihoods of those moved and whether the protection goal was met.
ELAW and Ecolex list M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath, an Indian environmental case
The Indian case M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath is listed by ELAW and Ecolex. Case details are not on record.
Tannery relocation in Bangladesh shifted pollution to Dhaleshwari river
IMED reported that moving Bangladesh's tanneries solved one pollution crisis but caused pollution of the Dhaleshwari river, according to a 2024 TBS News report. The river is the nature at stake.
Gorongosa's large-mammal biomass largely recovered after war-time collapse
Large-mammal biomass in Gorongosa, Mozambique, fell by more than 90% during the war and has largely returned, a 2019 study reports. The share of elephant, hippo and buffalo fell from 89% to 23%, so the recovery is uneven across species.
Nepal Army guards 14 protected areas; rhino count rose to 752
Nepal's army protects 14 protected areas with about 8,000 soldiers, and the rhino count there has risen to 752, Mongabay reported in 2025. Poaching had increased during the conflict years.
Brazil's top court rejects challenge to park cut for Ferrogrão railway
Brazil's Supreme Court rejected a challenge to removing about 862 hectares from Jamanxim National Park for the Ferrogrão railway, which soy traders proposed. At stake is protected land inside a national park.
Navajo-Hopi resettlement cost over $300 million, anthropologist says
The United States resettled Navajo and Hopi people, and an anthropologist cited by International Rivers says the resettlement cost more than $300 million and left most of those moved worse off. The cited sources give no dates, household counts or compensation terms.